Personality, Leadership, Communication skills

Personality Type
Personality Type Formula
Based on Carl G. Jung's typology [Jung, 1971], people can be classified using the two mental functions (sensing-intuition and thinking-feeling), the attitude (extraversion-introversion), and the fourth parameter that helps to determine the dominant function. In other words, Carl G. Jung's typology is based upon the following four dichotomies (bipolar dimensions where each pole represents an opposite preference):

• Extraversion - Introversion
• Sensing - Intuition
• Thinking - Feeling
• Judging - Perceiving
All possible permutations of the 4 criteria above define 16 different personality types. Each type can be assigned a name (personality type formula), as an acronym of the combination of the 4 dimensions that defines the Personality Type. For example:

• ISTJ stands for an Introvert, Sensing, Thinking, Judging
• ENFP stands for an Extravert, iNtuitive, Feeling, Perceiving
And so on.
Jung Typology Profiler for Workplace™ (JTPW™) determines an individual's personality type. In addition, it goes beyond the 4 Jungian dichotomies and measures several additional factors that make it possible to apply Jungian typology to effectively assess individual's behavior in the context of workplace.JTPW™ also provides personalized, dynamic descriptions of Jung's personality types, focused on workplace-related aspects such as preferred activities, decision making, problem solving, creativity, change management, conflict management, and interpersonal style.
Carl Jung's Personality Concept

Carl Jung (1875-1961), in his approach to personality, introduced two mental bipolar dimensions (dichotomies), namely Sensing-Intuition (SN) and Thinking-Feeling (TF).
The first dichotomy, SN (S stands for Sensing and N - for iNtuition), represents the way an individual receives information. To people who fall into the Sensing category, most important is the information they receive through their senses directly. People falling into Intuition category, mostly rely upon their conception about things, based on their perception of the world.
The second dichotomy, TF (T stands for Thinking and F - for Feeling), refers to how an individual processes the information. Thinking means the individual makes decisions based on an unbiased reasoning and less affected by the emotions. Feeling means that the individual's base for decisions is mainly feeling and emotional.
Carl Jung also introduced the notion about extraverted or introverted direction of each of the mental functions [Jung, 1971]. The direction points to the source of energy that feeds the dominant mental function. An Extravert's source of energy is mainly found in the outside world, whereas an Introvert's source of energy is mainly found in his or her inner world.
Carl Jung introduced the idea of a hierarchy of mental functions. According to Jung, in each individual one of the poles of the two dichotomies predominates over the rest of the poles. This pole defines the dominant function. One of the poles of the other dichotomy defines the auxiliary function.
But which of the functions is the dominant and which one is the auxiliary in a given individual? Carl Jung called SN mental function "irrational" (or perceiving) and TF "rational" (or judging) [Jung, 1971].
The "rational" function, according to Jung, is typical for mental activity that results in thinking, feelings, response and behavior that consciously operates in line with some rules, principles or norms. People with predominantly "rational" function perceive the world as an ordered structure that follows a set of rules.
The "irrational" function, according to Jung, is typical for mental and perceptual activity that predominantly (and, for the most part, unconsciously) operates with opportunities, i.e. various possible outcomes and sensations result from premises and sensations, mostly driven by unconscious processes. People with predominantly "irrational" thinking see the world as a structure that can take various forms and outcomes.
By observation or asking certain questions it is possible to determine, whether the organization of an individual's nervous system results in thinking, feeling, response and behavior that is predominantly "rational" or "irrational". Jung called the mental activity characterized by predominantly rational function judging, and the mental and perceptual activity characterized by predominantly irrational function perceiving.
Applying Jungian Approach to the Workplace
The traditional Jungian approach has certain limitations when applied to workplace-related issues. It provides the same type descriptions for different individual realizations of the same Jungian personality type, and the descriptions only have a general focus, not a workplace-specific one. However, in order to effectively apply Jungian typology to the workplace, type descriptions must cover workplace-specific aspects and reveal the specifics of the realization of personality type in a particular individual. In other words, two individuals sharing same Jungian personality type may reveal substantial differences in how this personality type is realized, and these differences directly affect work-related aspects. Further, there are several psychological traits which are particularly important in understanding and assessing the work-related behavioral characteristics of an individual, beyond the Jungian dichotomies.
Jung Typology Profiler for Workplace™ (JTPW™) effectively overcomes these limitations. It goes beyond the 4 Jungian dichotomies and measures several additional factors that make it possible to apply Jungian typology in order to effectively assess an individual's behavior in the context of workplace and reveal the important differences even within same Jungian Personality Types. JTPW Personality Radar™ visually represents the strengths of key workplace-related behavioral qualities.
JTPW™ enables a deeper and more accurate understanding of an individual's behavior at work and extends the application of Jungian typology to workplace-related areas such as candidate selection, team building, leadership and career development. 
References

1. Jung, C. G. (1971). Psychological types (Collected works of C. G. Jung, volume 6, Chapter X)
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Determining Other People's Personality
Understanding the personality of other people is extremely useful in establishing effective relationships with others. This page explains how to identify other people’s personality.
The notion of personality type was introduced by the famous psychologist Carl G. Jung. According to Carl G. Jung, people can be characterized by two dimensions, each represented by two opposites:

• Sensing vs. Intuition (S-N)
• Thinking vs. Feeling (T-F)
This produces 4 possible personality groups, each having distinct personality characteristics, marked as ST, NT, SF and NF:
Sensing vs. Intuition and Thinking vs. Feeling
To determine whether the other person is a sensing (S) or an intuitive (N) type, choose the  characteristics that describe the other person most:
S (Sensing)

• Practical
• Relies on facts, numbers; specific
• Present-oriented, concerned about problem in hand
VS.
 
N (iNtuition)

• Insightful and inspirational
• Relies on insights, theories, trends of development
• Future-oriented
To determine whether the other person is a thinking (T) or feeling (F) type, characteristics that describe the other person most: 
T (Thinking)

• Governed by a rational beginning, reason
• Objective, cold and impersonal
• Uses logical analysis and objective methodologies to solve problems and make decisions
VS.
F (Feeling)

• Governed by emotional beginning, feelings
• Shows sympathy, warmth, concern and support to others
• Makes decisions and solves problems based on "gut feeling", values, "good"/"bad", "like"/"dislike"
A combination of S-N and T-F preference determines personality type group the other person belongs to - either ST, NT, SF or NF.
Extraversion vs. Introversion
An additional dichotomy dimension, Extraversion – Introversion, can be used for a more comprehensive understanding of personality.
According to Carl G. Jung's approach to personality, extraversion is the tendency toward active actions as a dynamic response to the events and information from the external world.  Extraverted people draw the energy for their undertakings from the outside world. The outside world is the main driver of their actions and the main motivational factor. They typically have numerous contacts with others, even if their job does not require it.
Introversion is the tendency to reflect on one's own perceptions, thoughts and feelings. Introverted people draw the energy for their undertakings mainly from their inner world. The inner world is a very significant stimulus for their actions and is a very important motivational factor. They are unlikely to have numerous contacts with others, unless their job requires it.
Since in a workplace both extraverted and introverted people may have numerous contacts, this fact in itself cannot be used to conclude a slant to extraversion. Differentiating characteristics are better observed outside of workplace and in an informal environment. An extravert will energetically participate in conversations and activities. An introvert will try to find a place of solitude where he or she can avoid active contacts and can focus on their own thoughts and things they like.
E (Extravert)

• Draws energy from outside
• Responds to and initiates events in the external world
• Has numerous contacts with others, even if their job does not require it
• Prefers communicating in a group
• Doesn’t mind interruptions
VS.
I (Introvert)

• Draws energy from inner world
• Is focused and reflects on the inner world
• Has few contacts with others, unless their job requires it
• Prefers communicating one on one
• Dislikes interruptions, needs quiet to focus
Use the characteristics above to identify extraverted vs. introverted personalities in other people.
E-I dimension together with T-F and S-N dimensions in Carl G. Jung typology form 8 possible combinations or groups with distinct behavioural qualities described above: EST, ESF, ENT, ENF, IST, ISF, INT, INF.
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Most Effective Communication Strategies With Various Personalities
Communication style is characterized by the way people appear (or attempt to appear) in communication, the way they tend to relate to the ones they communicate with and how their messages are typically interpreted.
Here are some examples of communication styles:

• Specific: precise and detailed, avoiding vagueness; concrete
• Well-reasoned: providing convincing argumentation and reasoning, persuasive
• Confident: assured of personal or other abilities, judgment, or other qualities; confident about resources needed to succeed
• Supportive: giving support, especially moral or emotional support, assistance; helpful, caring, encouraging, understanding, reassuring, sympathetic
• Expressive: effectively conveying meaning or feeling; eloquent
• Forceful: characterized by strength and power; pushy; tending to make powerful impression, authoritative; can also exhibit threatening behaviour, aggressive
Different personality types process and communicate information differently. For example, an ENFJ will communicate well with people of ENFJ, INFJ, ENFP, INFP types (i.e. all who belong to the NF group), but not necessarily communicate effectively to individuals belonging to the ST group (ESTJ, ISTJ, ESTP, ISTP). This is because the ST people process and communicate information in a sensory and logical way rather than an emotional and conceptual one. 

Communication Styles and Personality
Preferable Communication Style
The table below summarizes what communication style would be preferable when communicating to various personality types.
With ST people:(sens+think)

• Be specific, confident, well-reasoned
• demonstrate immediate advantages, profit
• provide examples; use visual aids.
(means not giving concept in these ppl?)
With NT people:(intuit+thinking)

• Be specific, well-reasoned; use visual aids, diagrams
• use concepts, theories
• appeal to intellectual capabilities
• give them a challenge
• show how the problem in hand or subject of communication fits into the "big picture"
With SF people:

• Be supportive, expressive, and confident
• provide examples; demonstrate immediate advantages, profit
• appeal to feelings and emotions
• Be expressive, well-reasoned
• use visual aids
• use concepts, theories

       With NF people:

• appeal to their intuition
• give them a challenge
• show how the problem in hand or subject of communication fits into the "big picture"
Areas of Communication
Easy To Comprehend
The table below summarizes areas of communication (or topics) that would be relatively easy to comprehend by various groups of personality types.
By ST people:

• Practices (ways of doing something)
• Resources (means, personnel, equipment, tools, materials, money)
• Analyses (the examination of something in detail, study of interrelationships between the details, in order to understand it or draw conclusions from it)
• Implementation (practical realisation, ways of realisation, how things are actually carried out or accomplished)
• Rules (rules, procedures, policies, regulations, laws

        By NT people

• Ideas, concepts
• Analyses (the examination of something in detail, study of interrelationships between the details, in order to understand the whole or draw conclusions from it)
• Assessment (analysis or estimation of the characteristics, qualities or value of a thing or a person)
• Trends
• Reviews (expert reviews, analyst opinions)
• Paradoxical facts (that seemingly contradict the established beliefs or practises,  that may nonetheless be true)
• History (preceding events)
• Future (future perspectives, outcome, how things and events may develop, consequences of actions)
By SF people:

• Feelings and emotions
• Casual chatter
• Guesswork and premonitions (feelings of something to happen, even without a strong rationale)
• Practices (ways of doing something)
• Opinions and beliefs (even without a rational basis)
• Resources (means, personnel, equipment, tools, materials, money)
• Looks (way somebody or something appears); personal appearance, style, or fashion

       By NF people:

• Ideas
• Teachings
• Feelings
• Casual chatter
• Reviews (expert reviews, analyst opinions)
• Values
• History (preceding events)
• Future (future perspectives, outcome, how things and events may develop, consequences of actions)
• Beliefs
• Personal appearance, style, or fashion
Not So Easy To Comprehend
The table below summarizes areas of communication (or topics) that wouldn't be so easy to comprehend by various groups of personality types.
(personal note: this topic need more clarification! ;))
By ST people:

• Feelings
• Beliefs
• Casual chatter
• Guesswork and premonitions (feelings of something to happen without a strong rationale), gossiping
(are these ppl like computers?)
By NT people:

• Subtle differences in feelings
• Gossiping
• No alternative, “there is only one way”
By SF people:

• Analyses (the examination of something in detail, study of interrelationships between the details, in order to understand it or draw conclusions from it)
• Theories (theoretical or scientific principles devised to explain a group of facts or phenomena, seen as distinct from actual practice)
• Surprising facts (that seemingly contradict the established beliefs or practises,  that may nonetheless be true)

        By NF people:

• No alternative, “there is only one way”
• A very detailed examination of something
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Conflict Management Techniques
Conflict situations are an important aspect of the workplace. A conflict is a situation when the interests, needs, goals or values of involved parties interfere with one another. A conflict is a common phenomenon in the workplace. Different stakeholders may have different priorities; conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects, organization and client, boss and subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs. Often, a conflict is a result of perception. Is conflict a bad thing? Not necessarily. Often, a conflict presents opportunities for improvement. Therefore, it is important to understand (and apply) various conflict resolution techniques.
Forcing
Also known as competing. An individual firmly pursues his or her own concerns despite the resistance of the other person. This may involve pushing one viewpoint at the expense of another or maintaining firm resistance to another person’s actions.
Examples of when forcing may be appropriate

• In certain situations when all other, less forceful methods, don’t work or are ineffective
• When you need to stand up for your own rights, resist aggression and pressure
• When a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g. in a life-threatening situation, to stop an aggression)
• As a last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict
Possible advantages of forcing:

• May provide a quick resolution to a conflict
• Increases self-esteem and draws respect when firm resistance or actions were a response to an aggression or hostility
Some caveats of forcing:

• May negatively affect your relationship with the opponent in the long run
• May cause the opponent to react in the same way, even if the opponent did not intend to be forceful originally
• Cannot take advantage of the strong sides of the other side’s position
• Taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some individuals
Win-Win (Collaborating)
Also known as problem confronting or problem solving. Collaboration involves an attempt to work with the other person to find a win-win solution to the problem in hand - the one that most satisfies the concerns of both parties. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity to come to a mutually beneficial result. It includes identifying the underlying concerns of the opponents and finding an alternative which meets each party's concerns.
Examples of when collaborating may be appropriate:

• When consensus and commitment of other parties is important
• In a collaborative environment
• When it is required to address the interests of multiple stakeholders
• When a high level of trust is present
• When a long-term relationship is important
• When you need to work through hard feelings, animosity, etc
• When you don't want to have full responsibility
Possible advantages of collaborating: 

• Leads to solving the actual problem
• Leads to a win-win outcome
• Reinforces mutual trust and respect
• Builds a foundation for effective collaboration in the future
• Shared responsibility of the outcome
• You earn the reputation of a good negotiator
• For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution is less stressful (however, the process of finding and establishing a win-win solution may be very involed – see the caveats below)
Some caveats of collaborating: 

• Requires a commitment from all parties to look for a mutually acceptable solution
• May require more effort and more time than some other methods. A win-win solution may not be evident
• For the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial and a quick solution or fast response is required
• Once one or more parties lose their trust in an opponent, the relationship falls back to other methods of conflict resolution. Therefore, all involved parties must continue collaborative efforts to maintain a collaborative relationship
Compromising
Compromising looks for an expedient and mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties.
Examples of when compromise may be appropriate:

• When the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive or more involving approaches, such as forcing or collaborating
• To reach temporary settlement on complex issues
• To reach expedient solutions on important issues
• As a first step when the involved parties do not know each other well or haven’t yet developed a high level of mutual trust
• When collaboration or forcing do not work
Possible advantages of compromise:

• Faster issue resolution. Compromising may be more practical when time is a factor
• Can provide a temporary solution while still looking for a win-win solution
• Lowers the levels of tension and stress resulting from the conflict
Some caveats of using compromise:

• May result in a situation when both parties are not satisfied with the outcome (a lose-lose situation)
• Does not contribute to building trust in the long run
• May require close monitoring and control to ensure the agreements are met
Withdrawing
Also known as avoiding. This is when a person does not pursue her/his own concerns or those of the opponent. He/she does not address the conflict, sidesteps, postpones or simply withdraws.
Examples of when withdrawing may be appropriate:

• When the issue is trivial and not worth the effort
• When more important issues are pressing, and you don't have time to deal with it
• In situations where postponing the response is beneficial to you, for example -
  • When it is not the right time or place to confront the issue
  • When you need time to think and collect information before you act (e.g. if you are unprepared or taken by surprise)
• When you see no chance of getting your concerns met or you would have to put forth unreasonable efforts
• When you would have to deal with hostility
• When you are unable to handle the conflict (e.g. if you are too emotionally involved or others can handle it better)
Possible advantages of withdrawing: 

• When the opponent is forcing / attempts aggression, you may choose to withdraw and postpone your response until you are in a more favorable circumstance for you to push back
• Withdrawing is a low stress approach when the conflict is short
• Gives the ability/time to focus on more important or more urgent issues instead
• Gives you time to better prepare and collect information before you act
Some caveats of withdrawing:

• May lead to weakening or losing your position; not acting may be interpreted as an agreement. Using withdrawing strategies without negatively affecting your own position requires certain skill and experience
• When multiple parties are involved, withdrawing may negatively affect your relationship with a party that expects your action
Smoothing
Also known as accommodating. Smoothing is accommodating the concerns of other people first of all, rather than one's own concerns.
Examples of when smoothing may be appropriate:

• When it is important to provide a temporary relief from the conflict or buy time until you are in a better position to respond/push back
• When the issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person
• When you accept that you are wrong
• When you have no choice or when continued competition would be detrimental
Possible advantages of smoothing: 

• In some cases smoothing will help to protect more important interests while giving up on some less important ones
• Gives an opportunity to reassess the situation from a different angle
Some caveats of smoothing: 

• There is a risk to be abused, i.e. the opponent may constantly try to take advantage of your tendency toward smoothing/accommodating. Therefore it is important to keep the right balance and this requires some skill.
• May negatively affect your confidence in your ability to respond to an aggressive opponent
• It makes it more difficult to transition to a win-win solution in the future
• Some of your supporters may not like your smoothing response and be turned off
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Leadership Styles
Many organizations require from leaders the ability to set and communicate goals, motivate, inspire initiative and empower the followers and facilitate change. Such style of leadership is known as transformational. On the other hand they may require effectively coordinating the subordinates in accordance with procedures and standards; this type of leadership is typically referred as transactional.
The attributes of transformational and transactional styles are further explained below. There is a link between an individual’s personality and the leadership style individuals are most comfortable with and more likely to use. The connection between personality and leadership style was noted by several researchers and leadership specialists (e.g. Bass, 2000, 2008; Pillai, Schriesheim, & Williams, 1999; de Charon, 2003).
It is important to understand your natural leadership style so you can capitalize on your natural leadership strengths (or be aware of and address your natural weaknesses) for your career development, self-fulfillment and success at the workplace.


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Jung Typology Profiler for Workplace™ determines the most likely natural leadership style of an individual based on personality type and the expressiveness of various behavioral qualities such as vision, power, resourcefulness, empathy and other behavioral qualities. Based on your personality assessment, the JTPW Career Development Profile provides practical tips for becoming a more effective leader (or a more content worker if leadership is not your strength) and indicates possible pitfalls.

Transactional Leadership
Transactional leaders achieve set goals by acting within established procedures and standards. This leader assigns specific, well-defined tasks to subordinates and requires that they fulfill their responsibilities and meet standards precisely as prescribed or agreed upon.
Transactional leadership emphasizes the exchange that occurs between the leader and the follower. This involves directives from the leader (or a mutual discussion between the leader and the subordinate) regarding the requirements and objectives (Bass, 2008).
As far as reward and correction methods are concerned, think of the “carrot and stick” approach. Rewards are contingent on successful completion of the “transaction”. Meeting the objectives typically leads to rewards and reinforcement of the successful performance. The transactional rewards are material (e.g. raise, award or “job security”). However, psychological rewards are also present in transactional leadership (explicit positive feedback, praise).
Corrective actions are typically more reactive than proactive - the leader monitors the deviations, mistakes and errors in the performance of the subordinates. Failure to reach the objectives will bring disappointment, dissatisfaction, and a psychological (e.g. negative feedback, disapproval, disciplinary actions) or material punishment (Bass, 2008).
When might such leadership be useful? The transactional leadership style may, for example, be useful in crisis management or in emergency response, and in situations when activities must be carried out efficiently and exactly as planned.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership generally aims at higher goals than transactional does. Transformational leaders achieve the goals by inspiring and motivating followers and encouraging their initiative. Transformational leaders are able to create vision. They are able to establish a shared vision and sense of purpose among team members.
Transformational leaders motivate their followers by raising their concerns from basic needs (e.g. security) to achievement and self-fulfillment; by moving them beyond self-interest to concerns of the group, project or organization (Bass, 2008, Burns, 1978). They bring charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualized considerations (Bass, 2008). They address an individual’s self-worth and capitalize on an individual’s unique capabilities.
Like with transactional leadership, contingent rewards are present with transformational leadership and include both psychological and material ones (Bass, 2008). Transformational leadership however, puts a great emphasis on the psychological rewards. The follower’s self-actualization, rising above basic needs, positive feedback and praise from the leader are example of a psychological reward that transformational leadership brings.
Transformational leadership goes beyond just monitoring the performance of the followers and being reactive (providing negative feedback and corrective action when noticing an issue). It also puts a great emphasis on being proactive, establishing long term goals, facilitating change, seeking continuous improvement, and giving the followers an opportunity to learn from their mistakes.
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